Symbolic Interactionism Theory in Relationship between Teachers and Students Free Essay Example, 1000 words

Functionalists suggest that the main function of higher education teachers is to provide better occupational opportunities for unemployed students in the long-run. Upon analyzing the functionalist theory of education, it is the students who function as the receiver of the transferred knowledge, skills and cultural values from the school teachers. However, this theory is not applicable when it comes to analyzing the relationship between teachers and students in higher education. Functionalists strongly suggest that the main function of higher education teachers is to provide better occupational opportunities for unemployed students in the long-run. Upon analyzing the functionalist theory of education, it is the students who function as the receiver of the transferred knowledge, skills and cultural values from the school teachers. However, this theory is not applicable when it comes to analyzing the relationship between teachers and students in higher education. Conflict theory view e ducation as something that reflects other inequalities within a given society (Andersen Taylor, 2011, p. 348). Because of the presence of racial, class and gender discrimination, not all students are able to receive equal rights to education. We will write a custom essay sample on Symbolic Interactionism Theory in Relationship between Teachers and Students or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page 21). Conflict theory in higher education strongly suggests the idea that teachers in educational institutions are facing conflicts related to power struggling among the professionals within the hierarchical educational institutions. Conflict theory focuses on identifying potential conflicts (or gap) between the teachers and students in higher education (Appelrouth Edles, 2008, p. 355). As compared to functionalist theory, conflict theory is indirectly applicable when trying to examine the relationship between teachers and students in higher education.

To Kill A Mockingbird Mother Figure Analysis - 775 Words

Every child needs a mother figure in their life to follow and to learn from. In To Kill a Mockingbird, shows that to grow up without a proper mother figure affects the development of a child. Scout needs a mother figure in her life some clear examples Harper Lee adds in the novel are Calpurnia, Aunt Alexandra and Miss Maudie. Calpurnia is a great example of a respectful and caring mother figure to Scout. One example of a caring moment is whenever Calpurnia has to tell Scout to not be rude. This is very motherly of Calpurnia because she is trying to eliminate rude behavior because Calpurnia knows that Scout might blow up over little things if she keeps this behavior up. ‘’ But he’s gone and drowned his dinner in syrup’, I protested. ‘†¦show more content†¦Aunt Alexandra always tries to enforce this onto Scout because she feels that every girl should be like the other. â€Å"Aunt Alexandra’s vision of my deportment involved playing with small stoves, tea sets, and wearing the Add-A-Pearl necklace she gave me when I was born;’’. In this quote Scout talks about how Aunt Alexandra tells Scout how to act and how she wants Scout to act. The lesson that Scout learns from her aunt is that most people in this town is very stereotypical and that Aunt Alexandra really cares and worries about the appearance of the children. Reputation, is the one big thing Aunt Alexandra worries about because she wants to keep the Finch’s heritage up with a good reputation in this town. She cares about her familys reputation because in the town of Maycomb everyone is gossipy so reputation is everything. Aunt Alexandra shows disappointment of her family name when she finds out that they have a black woman working for them, Atticus defending a black man, Scout not being the perfect little girl, when they have a Cunningham over for dinner, and when Jem and Scout went to courthouse to watch Atticus defend a black man out in public. The lesson Scout learns from Aunt Alexandra being over is that you want to keep your family reputation because in this town it means everything. Miss Maudie, the positive woman who lives across the street has a lot of lessons for Scout, even if she isnt with Scout most of the time. As Miss Maudie acts during herShow MoreRelatedTo Kill A Mockingbird Judgement Essay1406 Words   |  6 Page ssituation†- Anonymous. This quote can be applied to each character also each person in life. The jury should not laugh at the prisoner because it is only a matter of time before roles can be switched. In Harper Lee s award winning novel, To Kill A Mockingbird, she sets the plot in the small Southern town of Maycomb, Alabama, during the Depression. During this time period, issues like classism, racism, genderism, and general stereotyping were quite prudent. Harper reveals that it is unjust for oneRead MoreTo Kill A Mockingbird Character Analysis832 Words   |  4 Pagesnovel â€Å"To Kill a Mockingbird† is a thrilling bildungsroman following the timeline of a young girl named Jean-Louise (Scout) Finch, written by Harper Lee. As a young girl, Scout lacked a biological mother, the result of a sudden health tragedy. Mothers play a very important role in the life of a young girl. A Mothers goal is to guide their children down a healthy path of life while providing the nece ssary components needed to thrive. Although Scouts mother died years ago, her mother figure was supersededRead MoreKill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee1910 Words   |  8 Pages To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by Harper Lee published in 1960. It was immediately successful, winning the Pulitzer Prize, and has become a classic of modern American literature. The plot and characters are loosely based on the author s observations of her family and neighbors, as well as on an event that occurred near her hometown in 1936, when she was 10 years old. The novel is renowned for its warmth and humor, despite dealing with the serious issues of rape and racial inequality. The narratorRead MoreThe Loss of Innocence and Maturity in to Kill a Mockingbird2128 Words   |  9 PagesThe Loss of Innocence and Maturity in To Kill A Mockingbird Harper Lee’s Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, To Kill a Mockingbird details the life and experiences of two children in a small town of Alabama. It describes how a series of events shakes their innocence, shaping their character and teaching them about human nature. In her novel, Lee demonstrates how these children learn about the essentiality of good and evil and the existence of injustice and racism in the Deep South during the 1930sRead MorePrejudice-to Kill a Mockingbird and Martin Luther King5895 Words   |  24 Pagesstep. In the twenty-first century prejudice and its destruction can be viewed in many forms of modern literature. Two of the most famous and rejoiced literatures that examine the theme of prejudice are Harper Lee’s realist fiction novel ‘To Kill a Mockingbird’ and Martin Luther King’s heart warming speech ‘I Have a Dream’. Both texts explore the theme of prejudice of white Americans on the Blacks in the racially te nse times of the early twentieth century. Unlike Harper Lee, Martin Luther King goesRead MoreComparing Themes of To Kill a Mockingbird and A Raisin in the Sun1962 Words   |  8 PagesTo Kill a Mockingbird and A Raisin in the Sun are books both written during a time of racial tension and inequality. Harper Lee and Lorraine Hansberry lived through the civil rights movement and saw the physical and verbal harassment against African Americans. This experience is evident in both works as the theme of fighting prejudice shines through. The goal of this paper is to compare and contrast the theme in both books and how it affected both of the families. Also, throughout the paper I willRead MoreCalpurnia Character Traits1164 Words   |  5 PagesCalpurnia Character Analysis Calpurnia, or â€Å"Cal†, was the Finch’s African-American housekeeper and cook. Her being a black, middle-aged woman in a white dominated society, we can already infer she has experienced great racial injustices. Throughout the novel, we see significant and noticeable changes in the main characters, but little development in Calpurnia ´s character. Before you discard this essay on what was supposed to be about a chosen character changing due to social and racial injusticesRead MoreAnalysis Of John Milton s Paradise Lost Essay2201 Words   |  9 Pagesdifferent bildungsromans from different eras and regions to fully determine the necessary characteristics of a bildungsroman, like The Odyssey, To Kill a Mockingbird, David Copperfield, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, and The Catcher in the Rye. One of the most well-known bildungsromans and one of the most applicable to Eve’s development is To Kill a Mockingbird. Scout Finch goes through a process comp arable to Eve’s, and will be especially useful in assessing Eve’s maturation since they are both heroinesRead MoreAnalysis Of The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn 1679 Words   |  7 Pages1. Analysis of an Important Character Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a story about growing up, facing the world, and fighting for what’s right. Huckleberry Finn matures greatly throughout the book, and Tom Sawyer plays an important role in showing this change. His character allows the reader to see Huck’s increase in maturity throughout the story. Tom is the constant, his immaturity not changing from the beginning to the end of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, while Huck is the changing variableRead MoreJasper Jones Study Guide6848 Words   |  28 Pages................................................................................... 10 Race and Ethnicity................................................................................................................................. 11 To Kill a Mockingbird (TKAM)................................................................................................................ 12 Australian Culture ...................................................... .............................................

Western Culture and Beauty Standards - 702 Words

Introduction:— Western culture is extremely popular in Asian countries like China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan and Thailand, to the point where entire generations of young adults are finding themselves in the middle of a warped identity crisis. These people have been bombarded by unrealistic images of what they should look like by the media, society, friends and sometimes, even family. This has created a narrow beauty standard which has manifested itself into many problems like—eating disorders, chronic anxiety, bullying, plastic surgery, dysmorphic syndrome, social withdrawal and suicide. Cosmetic surgeries in Asia have increased drastically in the last few years. Four out of every seven Korean parents chose a cosmetic surgery over a car as a graduation gift for their kids. Young men and women are getting double-eyelid surgeries, smile lifts, jaw realignments, nose jobs and much more in an effort to alter their natural anatomy. The purpose of my Graphic Design final thesis is to find a way to get people to accept their natural looks and to reduce the amount of cosmetic procedures performed in Asian countries. In order to get an approval to move further into the thesis development process, I plan to introduce my topic and my ideas to the committee by creating a three-minute video proposal for my midpoint review. Research:— From my research and readings, several questions arose about the beauty standard in Asian countries. Do parents care more about the society than theirShow MoreRelatedMedia Consumption Of Non Western Countries1414 Words   |  6 PagesMedia Consumption in Non-Western Countries The usage of media in Non-Western countries has been spreading as technology and social media have become the focus for most teenagers and young adults. Contrary to the assumption that Western countries are the only nations that have a population obsessed with media, statistics have shown that other developing countries are experiencing a significant increase in advanced technology usage such as using smartphones more frequently along with internet usageRead MoreThe Western Culture : Cultural Imperialism1169 Words   |  5 Pagesspread of ideas and cultures across countries and continents on a new scale never seen before. The spread of culture began a long time ago with people sailing around the world in search of adventure and resources. People were able to interact and share cultural beliefs and practices with dominant cultures imposing themselves on less dominating cultures. Countries that had more economic power than others, and those cultures that viewed themselves as more civ ilized imposed their cultures on countries thatRead MoreWhat Makes Plastic Surgery?1159 Words   |  5 Pagesit, Maybe it is Cosmetic Surgery Humans are social animals by nature. There is an ever-present urge to assimilate into society for person gain or comfort regardless of a person’s place of birth. Through personal observations, in both the Western and Eastern cultures, the region a person is brought up does not definitively matter when it concerns physical insecurities or how someone goes about remodeling themselves. Some go about change through adapting their dietary habits and fitness regimes to achieveRead MoreThe Culture of Beauty Essay873 Words   |  4 Pagesthe culture they have grown up in and learned to accept. One’s cultural perception has a huge impact on their idea of beauty. Each cultural group has invented their own ideas to reflect their natural idea of beauty. A broad example would be the Eastern and Western ideals of beauty. The Western beauty is described as white, usually tan, thin, large breasts, small waists, and delicate features. Mostly all present day people from various races pr efer a Western ideal of beauty. This idea of beauty isRead MoreThe Beauty Standard Essay712 Words   |  3 Pagesï » ¿The Beauty Standard Does this make me look fat?† Everyone at one time or another has experienced this iconic question in some way. Your best friend may have asked it, as she was getting ready for a date or maybe you muttered these words to yourself as you stared disapprovingly into a mirror; either way, this six-word question alludes to a standard of beauty that everyone strives to meet. A standard of beauty that is almost impossible to meet. The definition of beauty has evolved greatlyRead MoreArticle Review of Fatema Mernissis Size Six: The Western Womens Harem634 Words   |  3 PagesSize Six: The Western womens harem by Fatema Mernissi The article Size six: The Western womens harem by Fatema Mernissi is a contemplative look at the difference in harem experienced by women from cultures highly distinct from each other. Mernissi analyzed the portrayal and subordination of women both in the eyes of a Muslim woman like her, and from the perspective of Western women. Interestingly, the author argued that the subordination and repression of Western women by their own societyRead MoreA Brief Note On Anorexia And Bulimia Nervosa1561 Words   |  7 PagesIn today s western society, an abundance of factors contribute to the way one thinks and feels about themselves physically, and essentially how one would act upon this. All over the world, messages and images of skinny women are engrossing people s lives, leaving negative and long-lasting affects behind. Current beliefs of western culture suggest one must obtain a perfect, which has become analogous to thin, physique in order to achieve happiness and success, causing many young women to feelRead MorePsychopathology And Culture : The Epidemic Of Eating Disorders1396 Words   |  6 Pages Psychopathology and Culture: The Epidemic of Eating Disorders By: Bernadette Oldfield Dr. Van Arsdale Abnormal Psychology 6 May 2015 Throughout cultures, mental disorders vary immensely. In some cultures, certain disorders are considered taboo and not even recognized, in other cultures, the treatment of certain disorders varies, but the biggest thing that is different, is how certain disorders effect certain cultures and races less or more than others. This is somethingRead MoreWesternization Vs. Eating Disorders1645 Words   |  7 PagesWesternization Vs. Eating Disorders Historically, through an array of cultures worldwide, individuals have transformed their appearances in order to conform to the beauty ideal of relevant culture. Those that are apart of the Pa Dong Tribe, which reside among the boarder of Thailand, practice the elongating of the neck through the use of brass rings. African and Amazonian tribes consider beauty through the stretching of their lips that is achieved using large lip plates. Tribes in Africa striveRead MoreAnorexia Nervosa As A Culture Bound Syndrome1440 Words   |  6 Pagesering from Anorexia-Nervosa within western countries, compared to that of 3.2% of females suffering from Anorexia-Nervosa in non western countries (DiNicola 1990:253), it is not surprising that Anorexia Nervosa has been labeled a Culture-Bound Syndrome. There have been three prominent hypotheses as to why this particular disease is considered so. The most prominent of these hypotheses is that westernized media’s ideologies of thinness and be auty have influenced young females into developing a â€Å"fat-phobia

Becoming a Person of Influence Free Essays

Success is not easily attained but because of the influence of other people, it can easily be attained with new enthusiasm. The kind of influence other people impose make the other person response no matter what kind of influence it is. There are different kinds of advantages like in a certain company with the right influence from managers their employees respond with a new sense of interest. We will write a custom essay sample on Becoming a Person of Influence or any similar topic only for you Order Now Because of parents influences they can bond with their children on a deeper level, players bloom because of their coaches. Sales person will excel in their sales and break records and can achieve higher income for their products market. Every person should be born a leader in their own right but to become a leader we should always be a good follower and belong to a particular organization. Being a good leader we can always be an influence to other person, there are factors we need o consider to become an influence but the root of it started in a religion where we belong it is where we could learn many passages from the bible which we can analyze the deeper meaning of life how it is to be leader, to be a person of influence starts up with being humble and humane. An act of obligation on others, when other people do good deeds for other people there is always a strong need to return the act of kindness for the other person because, returning the favor liberate the obligation because this is always a part of social conditioning in every society. It could go further than that an ethical regulations does not need to be educated but should be understood. When someone gives a compliment it can be returned by another smile, even these gestures are unwanted, and there is always a sense of requirement to repay the person who has created the mental and psychological debt. People often carefully trigger feelings of indebtedness and obligation in others by carrying out an unsolicited favor. The mental and emotional burden created by such situation is often great enough that people would rather be unable to find the benefits of the favor by not asking for it, rather than to experience the humiliation and rejection that might come from asking. Studies have shown that the discussion is true when individuals break the reciprocity rule by showering special treatment on someone without giving them the chance to repay; there is the same amount of discomfort. The drive to lessen feelings of obligation is so powerful that it can make people turn to others that they don’t even know. The anxiety to respond is strong enough that when people don’t return the favor, they are viewed with disdain and disgust. Accepting gifts or favors without attempting to return them is u generally viewed as selfish, voracious, and heart less. It is often strictly due to this internal and external pressure that people become conventional to the rule of reciprocity. People feels justification when they see others do what they want or intend to do. It was learned early in life that people make fewer mistakes when they follow the social norm. There are two types of norms, explicit and implicit. Explicit norms are openly spoken or written like road signs, employee manuals or game rules. Implicit norms are not usually established openly. If humans don’t know the norms, they look around and find it. Social corroboration becomes a way to save time and energy to put up what is correct. Other actions were use by people to direct their own actions, to validate the right and wrong. They don’t always seems to emerge at the positive and negative way in every situation, this automatic triggers what saves people from thinking, if they find inconsistency between what is observe and what is done; they tend to make change in the direction of the social norm. Social corroboration compels to alter behavior, attitudes, and an action, what was observed by a person doesn’t really contest his true feelings, style and opinion. People go opposing their judgment because they always wanted to be liked, accepted, and found to be in agreement with everyone else. In seeking out for social norms it helps an individual to know what should be felt and done. Most components, this is not an attentive process because subconscious acceptance of behaving is determined. Almost sixty percent of daily activities are spent in verbal communication, in which an individual could convince and explain influence, negotiate, counsel or instruct. They can create society, excitement and vision with the words they use. The right words are captivating; the wrong words are devastating. The right words make tings to life, create energy, and are more persuasive than the wrong words. The bottom line is that the words people use attract or repel their prospects. The more a skillful is in the the use of language, the more persuasive the person. In two contrasting situations, items must be presented right after the other. It affects decision making on group meetings, in certain meeting when the great idea is forward after another great idea, it will not have an impact as if it just followed another’s poor idea. This is all about human insight. The human mind has to find a standard of comparison to make judgments, especially when an unfamiliar situation is being talked about. People need to make comparison with their past experience and knowledge. By presenting your prospects with contrast comparisons are created. The mind cannot process everything at once and so it develops shortcuts to help make decisions. Instead of making a completely internal judgments people always look for boundaries, patterns and polar opposites. They want to know the difference between the options so that they could naturally contrast the two items. Humans place things in their mind from best to worst An expectation has great influence to reality and creates results. Individuals tend to make decisions based on how others expect them to perform. As a result, people fulfill those expectations whether positive or negative. Expectations have a prevailing impact on perfect strangers. People will gratify the expectations of others in order or gain respect and likeability. People rise to meet your expectation of them. This is a powerful force that can lead to the improvement or destruction of a person. They can always express an expectation of doubt, lack of assurance, and skeptism. Those who believe in someone’s ability confidence should be showed in them and expect them to be successful and different results will be seen. When expectations are created, people’s behavior are changed, expectations can communicate in a variety of ways. It may be through language, voice. The influences of a person to other person are not measured but what a particular person has attained, it can never be a replacement for fundamental, sincere truthfulness of influencing others. People started in failures to reach success, it happens not only once but for several times, small achievement comes out for the first time, we need to fail to learn and make the incoming to work. A good kind of reputation can be compared to gold therefore; having sincerity is like owning the mine. People should not worry what others would think and should focus on what is within a person’s character, to take good care of it, and reputation as a whole. When a person criticize the other, integrity will be responsible to keep a person going, and climb the mountain of success of not striking back, and when this criticism is legal, integrity will help to admit what other people say, be taught from it and keep growing. The opportunity in the future of an individual is brilliant when the attitude is right, but a person should always enjoy the present because it is where the future lies. The voyage of a positive person comprehend that the journey is as pleasurable as the destination. How to cite Becoming a Person of Influence, Papers

Descriptive Essay Domestic Violence free essay sample

The abuser makes them feel worthless and insane using mind control such as verbal put-downs and violent threats which ultimately end in battering. Because she knows it has physically happened before, she is in constant fear of it happening again, at any moment. Therefore, she is in a seemingly chaotic and never-ending tale of abuse. Like a puppet, she feels as if she is helpless and completely controlled. He contorts her emotions, bends her self-worth, and isolates her away from the world. The cycle begins. For instance, a simple disagreement could cause an argument which then builds into a verbal fight with raised voices and clenched fists. The abuser get’s very loud and hostile, building with anger as the fight grows with tension. The woman gets angry, too, but her anger is usually a direct result from the fear and humiliation of the relationship in whole. She may try to walk away from the conflict, thinking this will help both him and her by means of temporary separation. We will write a custom essay sample on Descriptive Essay Domestic Violence or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This almost always results in an undoubting haze of tattered resentment and rage. He, then, -with his ego relying on the fact that he has complete control over her- perceives this as a blow to his ego and all at once snaps. He goes into an insane and uncontrollable frenzy and loses all means of self-control. Hitting, punching, choking, slamming her against walls, ripping out her jewelry, aggressively grabbing her inappropriately, and battering her with blunt objects. These are just minor few of the numerous acts abusers inflict on there victims. He’s like a ticking time bomb and he always has an excuse to why he went off. He may later apologize for such actions, or he may just blame her for â€Å"making† him act in such a way. She begins to doubt herself and even starts to believe the lies he feeds her. In many abusive relationships, the woman does truly love her abuser. She doesn’t understand how the man that she fell in love with has radically changed in demeanor and personality in whole. It’s as if he is now a completely different being then who she loved before. She cries herself to sleep every night and beds herself with the devil. She has lost everything she has ever achieved in her life. She feels unworthy and repetitively degraded. The hopelessness that has been planted into her life has grown into an overbearing weight and it torments her every waking (and dreaming) moment. Misery becomes her normal and she eventually gives up on ever feeling as she once did. The victim constantly has to lie to family members and friends in result of all the physical harm re-appearing on her body. When people start to get suspicious or ask further questions, the victim will often separate herself from the situation and sometimes ultimately cutting off all contact with those persons. Domestic violence often leads to death if not stopped. Intervening in this type of relationship is crucial to the battered victim. The intense magnitude of depression and despair caused by the abuse can ultimately lead the depleted victim to commit suicide. Abusive relationships never have and never will end well. The short-term and long-term effects of domestic violence are severe and sometimes permanent. The psychological impact on victims of domestic violence can be so awful that it sometimes has irreversible trauma and can result in various kinds of mental illness. Survivors of abusive relationships have emotional disadvantages and trust issues. But in time, the lucky ones who got out and got away heal. The abuser always has a chance of going off the deep end and exceeding the limits of past abuse. He will eventually take the level of battering a little higher each time, exerting his anger even more every fight. This, in due time, will, if not completely stopped, lead to the death of someone’s loved one. It could very easily be your daughter, your sister, your mother, your friend. It could one day be you. The first step is intervening. They need someone to rely on and help them through this distressing, painful event in there life. They can be free from the chains of abuse. Their broken spirits and scarred worth can be rejuvenated. But they need help. They cannot do it on there own. Don’t ignore the signs. Put an end to domestic violence.

Urban and Real Estate Information Technology Essay Example

Urban and Real Estate Information Technology Essay Urban real estate information systems: the suppression of radical innovation. John S Kirkwood School of Environment Development, Sheffield Hallam University E-mail: j. s. [emailprotected] ac. uk We will write a custom essay sample on Urban and Real Estate Information Technology specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Urban and Real Estate Information Technology specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Urban and Real Estate Information Technology specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer John S Kirkwood Abstract Information and communications technologies are continuing to bring about significant changes in society. These changes may be viewed as the direct consequence of technological advances, which in turn rely on scientific discovery. This paper adopts a different model predicated on the view that the rate of technological uptake depends upon recognising social and business needs and overcoming the barriers to innovation – particularly the forces that suppress radical potential. The validity and significance of this approach is examined by reference to real estate information systems. Keywords: real estate, property, innovation, information systems. Innovation brought about by new technology disrupts existing processes, practices and roles and produces either conscious or unconscious resistance by those who feel threatened. The introduction of a computerised national land information system, for example, impacts on the roles of professionals involved in real estate conveyancing, reveals information about land ownership that certain groups may prefer to remain secret, and requires government to devote limited resources to changes in legislation. Progress in all spheres of human activity necessitates change. It is impossible for either an individual or an organisation to improve by staying the same. No change may be an option but it involves risk because others may change and, in a competitive sense, move ahead. It has been suggested that continuous innovation is a pre-condition for sustaining competitive advantage (Porter, 1995) a view that is reinforced by the performance of high-technology companies, nourished by new ideas and their implementation (Manseau, 2001). As the real estate sector in the UK has adopted information and communications technology (ICT) more slowly than other sectors of the economy (Dixon, 1995; Cash, 1999), there is a need to understand fully the barriers to innovation. It is argued that new technologies are constrained and diffused only insofar as their potential for radical disruption is suppressed (Winston, 1996). Applying this model of the suppression of radical potential to real estate, it is suggested, provides a better understanding of the use of ICT within the industry, and aids the development of strategies to facilitate its use in more creative and appropriate ways. The approach adopted here consists of a review of the relevant literature to compare the merits of a model of innovation based on technological determinism with one that proposes that new technologies are only introduced when users are able to control their potential for radical disruption. This methodology is supported by the use of real estate examples. The objective is to stimulate debate and identify the case for further research, with the longer-term aim of improving performance in this sector. Innovation and diffusion Most new ideas essentially consist of technological innovation and it has been observed that we often use the words â€Å"innovation† and â€Å"technology† as synonyms (Rogers, 1995). ICTs in particular provide the opportunity for radical innovation in industries where information processing and knowledge management are core, such as the real estate sector. Technology is widely accepted as a major stimulus for change in society (Twiss, 1992) and in the second half of the 1980s information and communications technology (ICT) has provided more than just a new competitive weapon for commerce (Willcocks, 1997), it has led to the transformation of our material culture (Castells, 1996). As Freeman (1988) states: â€Å"The contemporary change of paradigm may be seen as a shift from a technology based primarily on cheap inputs of energy to one predominantly based on cheap inputs of information derived from advances in microelectronic and telecommunications technology. Since the development of microelectronics in the 1970s, some spectacular predictions have been made about the impact on society of the technologies of information processing and communication, with the terms Information Revolution and Information Society being commonplace (Negroponte, 1995; Leer, 2000). Other sources are more circumspect (Brown, 2002), arguing that the forces inv olved are more complex and less predictable than superficial analysis suggests. There is evidence all around us and throughout modern history that the impact of technology is often patchy and unpredictable. As Braudel (1979) has put it, â€Å"first the accelerator, then the brake†. And this is particularly so within the real estate sector in the United Kingdom, where the responses to the opportunities offered by ICT have been very mixed. Many commentators view technology as a driving force, its progress impeded only by the ignorance and stupidity of those unable to envision or adapt to the brave new world. The assumption behind this technological determinism is that new technology emerges from scientific study and then inevitably changes society, with most of us behaving like spectators (Williams, 1974). It is rather like arguing that people like stories because the printing press was invented. As Winston (1996) states: â€Å"The state of the market, or better, of society is the crucial factor in enabling the development and diffusion of any communications technology or in hindering it. † This is not to suggest that technology does not have an impact on how we live. Since the first Industrial Revolution in the last third of the eighteenth century technology has completely transformed the nature of society. But the rate of change in different geographical, economic and social sectors varies enormously. As Castells (1996) argues: â€Å"The interactivity of systems of technological innovation and their dependence on certain ‘milieux’ of exchange of ideas, problems, and solutions are critical features that can be generalised from the experience of past revolutions to the current one. In the case of technological innovation in real estate, an improved understanding of the social, cultural, economic and educational factors would permit a more accurate analysis of the rate of diffusion of information systems which may justify some positions in addition to identifying the barriers to change. Reflecting in general on the way technological developments unfold, the question that arises is whether they are â€Å"pushed† forward by the u narguable logic of being able to do things better, or â€Å"pulled† along by society’s needs, with some innovations accepted but others blocked? The technological determinists, who hold the former view, believe in that superior technologies will prevail, sooner or later. They concentrate on the virtues of the innovation and neglect the complexity of the diffusion process. The United Kingdom’s National Land Information System (NLIS) provides a useful illustration of the shortcomings of the concept of technological determinism, and provides an excellent example of the factors that may suppress innovation. It would also provide a useful research study, in the form of an international comparison of the introduction land information systems. The efficiency of the property market is dependent on good quality, accurate information that is available as conveniently as possible. Obviously a comprehensive, computerised system available throughout the country would be preferable to a collection of locally held, land registers or even a national system that is paper-based. The technology to accomplish the former has been available for a considerable length of time but NLIS is only just coming into being for England and Wales. In Scotland, in contrast, much more progress has been achieved, not because they know more about the technology, but because of a different legislative framework, and an alternative view of access to information. Dale (1997) highlighted this differing approach with the following example: â€Å"In England and Wales, the price paid for a property is still deemed to be secret, as is the amount for which it has been mortgaged. In Scotland, attitudes are different and such information is in the public domain. † The Sasine Register in Scotland (http://www. ros. gov. uk/) dates back to 1617. It is a register of transactions (deeds of sale, mortgages, etc) relating to land. The Scottish Land Register, which John S Kirkwood contains data from the Sasine Register, was established by the Land Registration (Scotland Act) 1979. The Association of Geographic Information website (http://www. agi. org. uk/case-studies) states: â€Å"The development of the innovative Registers Direct service will make this information readily accessible from a desktop computer equipped with a modem. Computerisation of the register began in the early 1980s and by 1983 all of the significant registers were being created and maintained on computer. † In contrast, it was only in July 2000 that there was an announcement by the Lord Chancellor that Macdonald Dettwiler had been selected as the preferred bidder to provide the NLIS hub services. (http://www. nlis. org. uk/docs/). Another illustration is the recent decision to establish an automated land information system for the Russian Federation (Corbley, 2002). The Land Reform Implementation Support programme (LARIS) is jointly funded by the World Bank and Russian government and is run by the Federal Land Cadastre Service (FLCS). As a preliminary to establishing the land information system it was recognised that reform of property rights and land transactions was fundamental to establishing a market economy, which itself depended on comprehensive political reform. The innovation is being driven by political, social and economic imperatives not technological development, although the latter forms an integral part of the mix. Real estate information systems The importance and significance of property has been recognised throughout history. It has been explained, for instance, that Sir John Fortescue demonstrated to Henry VI that his political stability and his capacity to maintain his estate were linked (Guy, 1988). As Denman (1978) has stated: Property is a social and juridical institution, a commonplace in the anatomy of all civilised societies. In human relationships it is a vehicle of power and in the land context a determinant of the occupation, possession and ownership of land. It has been estimated that real estate is the second or third largest contributor to overheads for most businesses (Roythorn, 1997). Another study reveals that more than half of the organisations interviewed claimed to have property assets worth 30% or more of their total asset value (Avis, 1989). Land is the source of all material wealth (Simpson, 1976) and as such it might be expected that rigorous efforts would be made to use ICT to aid the development, management and appraisal of real estate. Unfortunately, the evidence shows that in general within the United Kingdom the sector has been slow to innovate compared with other areas. Also, much of the innovation that has occurred has John S Kirkwood been driven by those operating on the fringe of the sector, such as property software companies and academics. It seems paradoxical that a sector that appears to be quintessentially an information-based industry should be so resistant to the opportunities provided by the Information Revolution. Understanding why this is so is not straightforward because of the complexities the real estate industry with its diversity of functionality and wide range of organisational type and the paucity of research on this topic. From the general literature on innovation it is reasonable to surmise that the suppression of the radical potential of ICT within real estate is caused by a combination of influences, including political, cultural, economic, financial and educational. In addition, there are issues related to balancing access to information and privacy, the application of standards (e. . for data transfer) and the degree of disruption caused by any new technology. These factors are commented on in the examples that follow but the author is cognisant of the need for further research aimed at removing barriers to innovation. There have been some notable successes using ICT within the real estate sector, both for industry-specific applications and for general-purpose office automation . Property management systems are now widespread, and there are numerous specialist computer packages for investment valuation, development appraisal and commercial and residential agency. Also, on-line, market intelligence systems, such as Estates Gazette Interactive and FOCUS, have emerged to exploit the power of the Internet. Similarly, the use of office automation tools, like word processing, spreadsheets and e-mail, is routine in real estate offices. But these â€Å"successes† have essentially been based upon the automation of mundane tasks rather than a genuinely innovative approach to real estate practice. There is evidence of a lack of a strategic vision within the sector (Dixon, 1998) and it has been shown that many organisations are a long way from realising the full potential of ICT (Waller, 2000). There is a parallel lack of emphasis on training and education to meet the demands of this new commercial environment. A survey conducted on behalf of the Property Computer Show in 1999 (Cash, 1999) revealed that 51% of the property firms interviewed had not spent a single day on ICT training during the previous 12 months. This lack of innovation is not unique to the UK. It has been reported (Han, 2001) that in Singapore’s property management companies, computer applications are lagging behind the advancement of computer hardware and software. Even in the US seen by some as the originator of the Information Revolution (Castells, 1996) it has been observed that resistance to technological advances penetrates the entire real estate sector (Sherwood, 2001). Another opinion is that far too many realtors view the technology as a threat, in much the same way as the Luddites of the first Industrial Revolution (Tuccillo, 2000). Incremental and disruptive technologies It is useful to make a distinction between incremental technological change and disruptive technological change (Norman, 1999). The adoption of the mobile telephone is an example of the former. Although real estate professionals have enthusiastically adopted the new technology they have continued to work within the traditional paradigm. In contrast, the use of ICT for the production of printed material (eg reports, brochures, journals) has fundamentally changed the process and significantly reduced the number of personnel required to undertake it (eg copy typists and printers). For example, when the first computerised composition system was introduced into the Estates Gazette offices in the early 1980s the workforce of printers needed to produce the journal was reduced from sixty to fifteen. Later the process of page composition was shifted from the print room to the desktop. The nature of this distinction requires further analysis. In the example cited the mobile telephone is used to facilitate, rather than replace, the activity being undertaken. The complex interaction that takes place between individuals in a business context (eg negotiations) is simply undertaken using a more convenient communications device – one that releases the parties from the restriction of specific locations. In the case of document production a completely new technological solution – desktop publishing has virtually replaced a traditional industry – printing. The scale of the disruption caused by this revolution was vividly highlighted by the industrial action that took place in the mid-1980s, when News International transferred the production of newspapers to Wapping. E-mail is another example of an incremental, non-disruptive technology that has been readily adopted by real estate professionals. Mercedes-Benz installed Verimation’s Memo office automation package as early as 1988 (Kirkwood, 1997) but it was not until the beginning of 2000 that e-mail was being used widely by UK real estate professionals, as reflected in an Estates Gazette survey (Kirkwood, 2000). The survey, undertaken in the form of a questionnaire faxed to 170

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